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Burnout is a psychological term that refers to long-term exhaustion and diminished interest in work. Burnout has been assumed to result from chronic occupational stress (e.g., work overload). However, there is growing evidence that its etiology is multifactorial in nature, with dispositional factors playing an important role.[1][2] Although it is widespread, burnout is not recognized as a distinct disorder, in the DSM-5,[3] due to the fact that burnout is problematically close to depressive disorders. However, it is included in the ICD-10,[4] and can be found under problems related to life-management difficulty (Z73).
The symptoms of burnout are similar to those of clinical depression; in a study that directly compared depressive symptoms in burned out workers and clinically depressed patients, no diagnostically significant differences were found between the two groups: burned out workers reported as many depressive symptoms as clinically depressed patients.[5] Moreover, a study by Bianchi, Schonfeld, and Laurent (2014) showed that about 90% of burned out workers meet diagnostic criteria for depression, suggesting that burnout may be a depressive syndrome rather than a distinct entity.[6] The view that burnout is a form of depression has found support in several recent studies.[7][8][9]
Contents [hide]
1 Overview
2 Organizational burnout
3 Phases
4 Prevention
5 Coping strategies
5.1 Organizational aspects
5.1.1 Employee assistance programs (EAP)
5.1.2 Stress management training
5.1.3 Stress interventions
5.2 Individual aspects
5.2.1 Problem-based coping
5.2.2 Appraisal-based coping
5.3 Social support
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
Overview[edit]
The term burnout in psychology was coined by Herbert Freudenberger in his 1974 Staff burnout, presumably based on the 1960 novel A Burnt-Out Case by Graham Greene, which describes a protagonist suffering from burnout.[10][11] Social psychologists Christina Maslach and Susan Jackson developed the most widely used instrument for assessing burnout, namely, the Maslach Burnout Inventory. The Maslach Burnout Inventory operationalizes burnout as a three-dimensional syndrome made up of exhaustion, cynicism, and inefficacy.[12] Some researchers and practitioners have argued for an "exhaustion only" model that views that symptom as the hallmark of burnout.[13][14]
Maslach and her colleague, Michael Leiter, defined the antithesis of burnout as engagement.[15] Engagement is characterized by energy, involvement and efficacy, the opposites of exhaustion, cynicism and inefficacy.[15] Bakker et al. (2014) in Burnout and Work Engagement: The JD–R Approach makes the same argument as Leiter.
Many theories of burnout include negative outcomes related to burnout, including measures of job function (performance, output, etc.), health related outcomes (increases in stress hormones, coronary heart disease, circulatory issues), and mental health problems such as depression. It has been found that patients with chronic burnout have specific cognitive impairments, which should be emphasized in the evaluation of symptoms and treatment regimes. Significant reductions in nonverbal memory and auditory and visual attention were found for the patient group.[16]
Burnout is supposed to be a work-specific syndrome. However, this restrictive view of burnout's scope has been shown to be groundless.[17] Thus, the restriction of the study of burnout to the occupational domain results from an arbitrary choice rather than from an empirical necessity.
Burnout is becoming a more common result as the modern workplace changes. Being both economically and psychologically exhausting, the increasingly hostile and demanding environments in which employees work is being studied as a cause.[citation needed] More frequently, economic values are placed ahead of human values. The phenomenon is more likely when a mismatch is present between the nature of the job and the person doing the job. A common indication of this mismatch is work overload. It involves doing too much with too few resources, going beyond human limits. This may occur in a situation of downsizing, which often does not reduce a companies mandate, but allocates it to present employees.[15]
While the typical causes of burnout result directly from work, such as the feeling of no control over one's work, lack of recognition for good work, and unclear and overly demanding expectations, the phenomenon may be supplemented by lifestyle and personality outside of the workplace. For instance, lack of sleep and close/personal relationships, high expectations from too many people, working to the point of not allowing time for relaxation and socializing, and pessimistic tendencies all will aid in creating the feeling of burnout if the work environment is already overly pressing.[18]
Although burnout may sound a lot like stress, it is important to realize that they are not one and the same. While stress is characterized by over-engagement, burnout is characterized by dis-engagement. Stress ultimately produces urgency and hyperactivity, whereas burnout produces helplessness or hopelessness. And although stress may cause a loss of energy and anxiety disorders, burnout often involves loss of motivation, ideals, and hope.[18]
Organizational burnout[edit]
Tracy's study of workers aboard cruise ships describes burnout as "a general wearing out or alienation from the pressures of work" (Tracy, 2000 p. 6). "Understanding burnout to be personal and private is problematic when it functions to disregard the ways burnout is largely an organizational problem caused by long hours, little down time, and continual peer, customer, and superior surveillance".[19]
How pressure is dealt with determines how much stress someone feels and how close they are to burnout. One individual can experience few stressors, but be unable to handle the pressure well and thus experience burnout. Another person, however, can experience a far greater number of stressors, but effectively deal with them, and avoid burnout. How close someone is to a state of burnout can be determined through various tests.[20]
Phases[edit]
Psychologists Herbert Freudenberger and Gail North have theorized that the burnout process can be divided into 12 phases, which are not necessarily followed sequentially.[3]
The compulsion to prove oneself
Often found at the beginning is excessive ambition. The desire to prove oneself in the workplace turns into compulsion.[3]
Working harder
Because they have to prove themselves to others or try to fit in an organization that does not suit them, people establish high personal expectations. In order to meet these expectations, they tend to focus solely on work while they take on more work than they otherwise would. It may happen that they become obsessed with doing everything themselves to show that they are irreplaceable.[3]
Neglecting their needs
Since they have to devote everything to work, they now have no time and energy for anything else. Friends and family, eating and sleeping start to be seen as unnecessary or unimportant, as they reduce the time and energy that can be spent on work.[3]
Displacement of conflicts
They become aware that what they are doing is not right, but they are unable to see the source of the problem. This may lead to a crisis in themselves and become threatening. The first physical symptoms appear.[3]
Revision of values
While falling into a state of denial of basic physical needs, perceptions and value systems change. Work consumes all energy, leaving none for friends and hobbies. The job is the new value system and people start to become emotionally blunt.[3]
Denial of emerging problems
People may become intolerant and dislike being social. They may be seen as aggressive and sarcastic. Problems may be blamed on time pressure and all the work that they have to do.[3]
Withdrawal
Minimal social contact turns into isolation. Alcohol or drugs may be used as a release from obsessive working "by the book". These people often have feelings of being without hope or direction.[3]
Obvious behavioral changes
Coworkers, family, friends and others in their immediate social circles cannot overlook the behavioral changes in these people.[3]
Depersonalization
It is possible that they no longer see themselves or others as valuable. Their view of life narrows to only seeing the moment and life turns to a series of mechanical functions.[3]
Inner emptiness
They feel empty inside and may exaggerate activities such as overeating or sex to overcome these feelings.
Depression
Burnout may include depression. In that case, the person is exhausted, hopeless, indifferent, and believes that life has no meaning.[3]
Burnout syndrome
They collapse physically and emotionally and need immediate medical attention. In extreme cases, suicidal ideation may occur, with it being viewed as an escape from their situation. Only a few people will actually commit suicide.[3]
Prevention[edit]
While individuals can cope with the symptoms of burnout, the only way to truly prevent burnout is through a combination of organizational change and education for the individual.[15] Organizations address these issues through their own management development, but often they engage external consultants to assist them in establishing new policies and practices supporting a healthier worklife. Maslach and Leiter postulated that burnout occurs when there is a disconnection between the organization and the individual with regard to what they called the six areas of work life: workload, control, reward, community, fairness, and values.[21]
Resolving these discrepancies requires integrated action on the part of both the individual and the organization.[21] A better connection on workload means assuring adequate resources to meet demands as well as work/life balances that encourage employees to revitalize their energy.[21] A better connection on values means clear organizational values to which employees can feel committed.[21] A better connection on community means supportive leadership and relationships with colleagues rather than discord.[21]
One approach for addressing these discrepancies focuses specifically on the fairness area. In one study employees met weekly to discuss and attempt to resolve perceived inequities in their job.[22] This study revealed decreases in the exhaustion component over time but did not affect cynicism or inefficacy indicating that a broader approach is required.[21]
Some simple prevention tips that may help include: Start the day with a relaxing ritual, adopt healthy eating, exercising, and sleeping habits, set boundaries, take a break from technology, nourish your creative side, and learn how to manage stress.[18]
Coping strategies[edit]
There are a variety of ways that both individuals and organizations can deal with burnout. In general, resting proves to be very effective. This may include a temporary reduction of working hours, slowly rebuilding the endurance of the individual. In his book, Managing stress: Emotion and power at work (1995), Newton argues that many of the remedies related to burnout are motivated not from an employee's perspective, but from the organization's perspective. Despite that, if there are benefits to coping strategies, then it would follow that both organizations and individuals should attempt to adopt some burnout coping strategies. Below are some of the more common strategies for dealing with burnout.
Organizational aspects[edit]
Employee assistance programs (EAP)[edit]
Stemming from Mayo's Hawthorne Studies, employee assistance programs were designed to assist employees in dealing with the primary causes of stress. Some programs included counseling and psychological services for employees. There are organizations that still utilize EAPs today, but the popularity has diminished substantially because of the advent of stress management training (SMT).
Stress management training[edit]
Stress management training (SMT) is employed by many organizations today as a way to get employees to either work through stress or to manage their stress levels—to maintain stress levels below that which might lead to higher instances of burnout.
Stress interventions[edit]
Research has been conducted that links certain interventions, such as narrative writing or topic-specific training, to reductions in physiological and psychological stress.[citation needed]
Individual aspects[edit]
Problem-based coping[edit]
On an individual basis, employees can cope with the problems related to burnout and stress by focusing on the causes of their stress. Various therapies, such as neurofeedback therapy, claim to assist in cases of burnout. This type of coping has successfully been linked to reductions in individual stress.
Appraisal-based coping[edit]
Appraisal-based coping strategies deal with individual interpretations of what is and is not a stress inducing activity. There have been mixed findings related to the effectiveness of appraisal-based coping strategies.
Social support[edit]
Social support has been seen as one of the largest predictors toward a reduction in burnout and stress for workers. Creating an organizationally-supportive environment as well as ensuring that employees have supportive work environments do mediate the negative aspects of burnout and stress.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Stress management
Boreout
Compassion fatigue
Writer's block
Spoon theory
Stress and the workplace:
Occupational stress
Work-life balance
Occupational burnout
Industrial and organizational psychology
Occupational health psychology
Perceived organizational support
Perceived psychological contract violation
Medical:
Stress (medicine)
Depression (mood)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Alarcon, G.; Eschleman, K. J.; Bowling, N. A. (2009). "Relationships between personality variables and burnout: A meta-analysis". Work & Stress 23 (3): 244–263. doi:10.1080/02678370903282600.
Jump up ^ Swider, B. W.; Zimmerman, R. D. (2010). "Born to burnout: A meta-analytic path model of personality, job burnout, and work outcomes". Journal of Vocational Behavior 76 (3): 487–506. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2010.01.003.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m Ulrich Kraft, "Burned Out", Scientific American Mind, June/July 2006 p. 28-33
Jump up ^ ICD-10: International Classification of Diseases. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2015.
Jump up ^ Bianchi, R., Boffy, C., Hingray, C., Truchot, D., & Laurent, E. (2013). Comparative symptomatology of burnout and depression. Journal of Health Psychology, 18(6), 782-787.
Jump up ^ Bianchi, R., Schonfeld, I. S., & Laurent, E. (2014). Is burnout a depressive disorder? A re-examination with special focus on atypical depression. International Journal of Stress Management, 21(4), 307-324.
Jump up ^ Bianchi, R., & Laurent, E. (in press). Emotional information processing in depression and burnout: An eye-tracking study. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience.
Jump up ^ Bianchi, R., Schonfeld, I. S., & Laurent, E. (in press). Is burnout separable from depression in cluster analysis? A longitudinal study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology.
Jump up ^ Hintsa, T., Elovainio, M., Jokela, M., Ahola, K., Virtanen, M., & Pirkola, S. (in press). Is there an independent association between burnout and increased allostatic load? Testing the contribution of psychological distress and depression. Journal of Health Psychology.
Jump up ^ Can’t Get No Satisfaction: In a culture where work can be a religion, burnout is its crisis of faith. by Jennifer Senior, November 26, 2006, New York Magazine
Jump up ^ Freudenberger, H. J. (1974). "Staff burnout". Journal of Social Issues 30 (1): 159–165. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1974.tb00706.x.
Jump up ^ Maslach, C., Jackson, S.E, & Leiter, M.P. MBI: The Maslach Burnout Inventory: Manual. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1996.
Jump up ^ Kristensen, T.S.; Borritz, M.; Villadsen, E.; Christensen, K.B. (2005). "The Copenhagen Burnout Inventory: A new tool for the assessment of burnout". Work & Stress 19: 192–207. doi:10.1080/02678370500297720.
Jump up ^ Shirom, A. & Melamed, S. Does burnout affect physical health? A review of the evidence. In A. S. G. Antoniou & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Research companion to organizational health psychology (pp. 599-622). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2005.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Maslach, C. & Leiter, M.P. The truth about burnout. New York. Jossey-Bass, 1997.
Jump up ^ Sandstrom, A; Rhodin IN; Lundberg M; Olsson T; Nyberg L. (20005). "Impaired cognitive performance in patients with chronic burnout sysndrome.". Biological Psychology 69 (3): 271–279. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.08.003. Retrieved December 5, 2012. Check date values in: |date= (help)
Jump up ^ Bianchi, R., Truchot, D., Laurent, E., Brisson, R., & Schonfeld, I. S. (2014). Is burnout solely job-related? A critical comment. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 55(4), 357-361.
^ Jump up to: a b c Smith M. M.A., Segal J. Ph.D., & Segal R. M.A.
Jump up ^ Tracy, S. (2000) Becoming a Character for Commerce Emotion. Management Communication Quarterly, 14. 113
Jump up ^ Truby, B. (2009)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Maslach, C.; Schaufeli, W. B.; Leiter, M. P. (2001). S. T. Fiske, D. L. Schacter, & C. Zahn-Waxler, ed. "Job burnout". Annual Review of Psychology 52: 397–422. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.397.
Jump up ^ van Dierendonck, D.; Schaufeli, W. B.; Buunk, B. P. (1998). "The evaluation of an individual burnout intervention program: the role of in- equity and social support". J. Appl. Psychol 83: 392–407. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.3.392.
Further reading[edit]
This article's further reading may not follow Wikipedia's content policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive, less relevant or many publications with the same point of view; or by incorporating the relevant publications into the body of the article through appropriate citations. (August 2010)
"A review and integration of research on job burnout", Cordes, C. and Dougherty, T. (1993). Academy of Management Review, 18, 621-656. Cited in O'Driscoll, M. P. and Cooper, C.L. (1996).
"Sources of Management of Excessive Job Stress and Burnout", In P. Warr (Ed.), Psychology at Work Fourth Edition. Penguin.
"Tailoring treatment strategies for different types of burnout" Farber, B. A. (1998). Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, 106th, San Francisco California, August 14–18. ED 424 517
"Staff burnout", Freudenberger, H. J. (1974). Journal of Social Issues, 30(1), 159-165.
"Authentic leaders creating healthy work environments for nursing practice", Shirey M. R. American Journal of Critical Care May 2006. Vol. 15, Iss. 3; p. 256
"Taming burnout's flame", Krista Gregoria Lussier, Nursing Management Chicago: April 2006. Vol. 37, Iss. 4; p. 14
"A Scientific Solution To Librarian Burnout", Craig S. Shaw New Library World Year 1992 Volume: 93 Number: 5
Stress and Burnout in Library Service, Caputo, Janette S. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press, 1991.
An assessment of burnout in academic librarians in America using the Maslach Burnout Inventor (the MBI) Ray, Bernice, Ph.D., Rutgers University - New Brunswick, 2002, 90 pages; AAT 3066762
Bakker, A., Demerouti, E., & Sanz-Vergel, A. I. (2014). Burnout and Work Engagement: The JD–R Approach. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1(1), 140114155134003. http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091235
Tracy, S. (2000) Becoming a Character for Commerce Emotion. Management Communication Quarterly, 14. 90-128
Newton, T. (1995). Managing stress: Emotion and power at work. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Herbert J. Freudenberger (1980), Burn-Out: The High Cost of High Achievement. Anchor Press
Herbert J. Freudenberger and Gail North (1985). Women’s Burnout: How to Spot It, How to Reverse It, and How to Prevent It, Doubleday
Maslach, C.; Schaufeli, W. B.; Leiter, M. P. (2001). "Job burnout". Annual Review of Psychology 52: 397–422. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.397.
Maslach, C.; Leiter, M. P. (2008). "Early predictors of job burnout and engagement". Journal of Applied Psychology 93: 498–512. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.3.498.
Maslach, C. & Leiter, M. P. (1997). The truth about burnout. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Shaufeli, W. B.; Leiter, M. P.; Maslach, C. (2009). "Burnout: Thirty-five years of research and practice". Career Development International 14: 204–220.
Maslach, C., Jackson, S. E, & Leiter, M. P. MBI: The Maslach Burnout Inventory: Manual. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1996.
Kristensen, T.S.; Borritz, M.; Villadsen, E.; Christensen, K.B. (2005). "The Copenhagen Burnout Inventory: A new tool for the assessment of burnout". Work & Stress 19: 192–207. doi:10.1080/02678370500297720.
Shirom, A. & Melamed, S. Does burnout affect physical health? A review of the evidence. In A.S.G. Antoniou & C.L. Cooper (Eds.), Research companion to organizational health psychology (pp. 599–622). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2005.
Sanders, Marc. (2013) "Existential Depression. How to recognize and cure life-related sadness in gifted people", Sel-Help Manual.
van Dierendonck, D.; Schaufeli, W. B.; Buunk, B. P. (1998). "The evaluation of an individual burnout intervention program: the role of in- equity and social support". J. Appl. Psychol 83: 392–407. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.83.3.392.